Sommario: 1. Introduzione; – 2. Dalla nascita del dilettantismo allo sport interuniversitario; – 3. La National Collegiate Athletic Association e le sue norme; – 4. Accenni sulla normativa antitrust nord-americana; – 5. L’NCAA: organizzazione come un cartello e violazioni antitrust; – 6. Conclusioni.

Abstract: In this article, we present further discussion provoking explanation, why the existing fight against doping in sport is not fully successful although widely presented in media. Our paper is based on economical arguments derived from discussions of practitioners due to lack of statistically valid data and their fundamental mathematical modeling. Hence, the maximization of a (two-variable) sports attendance demand function, depending on athletes’ performance and doping prevalence, may result in a positive optimal doping prevalence and explain the existing sport doping related situation. Given reasonable assumptions on relevant functional behavior, this result can be interpreted as an incentive for sports officials to allow (and even welcome) some doping. As a consequence, we conclude that one should not be surprised that doping exists and is widespread under the assumption of aggregated rational behavior that is common in economical research. Therefore, the need for a global coordinated system of testing and sanctions decoupled from sport may be a necessary condition in order to meet these challenges and together with the proposed model should be the subject of further discussions.
Keywords: Performance-enhancing drugs, Optimal level of doping, Sports performance, Sports demand.

Intro: L’ordinamento sportivo, autonomo ed indipendente, è munito di propri statuti e regolamenti nonché di propri organi di giustizia sportiva. Come è noto, ogni Federazione e Disciplina sportiva associata possiede un vero e proprio apparato di organi di giustizia, disciplinati dai relativi Statuti e Regolamenti. Nel merito la dottrina[1] ha diviso le questioni che riguardano la giustizia sportiva per la natura delle controversie in: a) giustizia tecnica: la quale mira a garantire il corretto svolgimento delle competizioni ed il rispetto delle norme che regolamentano il gioco della disciplina praticata poste dalla Federazione internazionale di riferimento; b) giustizia disciplinare: tende ad accertare e punire eventuali violazioni di norme federali relative a controversie implicanti l'applicazione di sanzioni a carico di chi le viola; c) giustizia economica: tende a risolvere le controversie di tipo patrimoniale, tra due società o tra una società ed un atleta, controversie nelle quali la Federazione nazionale assume la posizione di terzo, non essendo portatrice di interessi personali al pari delle parti in causa; d) giustizia amministrativa: si tratta di una categoria residuale nell'ambito della quale generalmente si ricomprendono i provvedimenti relativi al tesseramento, all'affiliazione e alla partecipazione ai campionati di competenza. READ MORE...

Abstract
Classical ballet is a physical art form with strict aesthetic requirements. A review of the contemporary literature shows that the desire to obtain a slender athletic physique, which is often required for success at the elite level, may place dancers at risk for the female athlete triad. Ballet training can be intense from a young age, and this may negatively impact the onset of puberty and associated gains in bone density. Ballet training may also play a role in developing menstrual dysfunction and amenorrhea, both of which are detrimental to bone density development during adolescence. However, classical ballet could provide a positive influence on bone growth due to the loads placed on the skeletal system in the training. Furthermore, strength and power training may improve bone health in ballet dancers of various levels of experience. This review examines the primary factors that may impact bone health in female ballet dancers

Keywords: bone density, dance, female athlete triad, strength.

Abstract
Objective: To assess the effects of family structure and physical activity on late menarche. Research Methods and Procedures: Retrospectively ages at menarche, family sizes, birth orders and other variables were studied in 238 Congolese women including 90 pre-menarche-trained athletes, 18 post- menarche- trained athletes and 130 non-athletes. Results: Mean age at menarche was later (p<0.001) in pre-menarche (15.36 + 1.04 yrs) compared to post- menarche athletes (13.93 + 1.03 yrs) or to non-athletes (14.03 + 1.22 yrs), but similar (p>0.4) between these two last groups. Mean birth order or birth order within a family size was higher (p<0.01) in athletes than in non-athletes. Mean family size or sex ratio did not differ between groups. Controlling for the effect of duration of training before menarche abolished family size or birth order slight effect (p<0.05) on age at menarche, while the duration of training substantial effect (p<0.001) on age at menarche persisted after controlling for family size and birth order effects. Regression analysis confirmed that duration of training was a better predictor of age at menarche than family size or birth order in pre-menarche athletes. Conclusion: Physical activity before puberty seems to be a more important determinant of late menarche than family structure.

Keywords: puberty, athletes, Africa, family size, populations.